Factors in Understanding in Reading

A. Linguitic Factors

Understanding in reading is influenced by several key factors. Firstly, vocabulary knowledge plays a crucial role, as readers must be familiar with a wide range of words to comprehend texts effectively. Secondly, background knowledge and experiences shape understanding, as readers draw on their prior knowledge to make sense of new information. Thirdly, cognitive skills such as inference-making and summarization are important, as readers need to draw conclusions and condense information to grasp the main ideas of a text. Additionally, fluency in reading is a factor, as struggling to decode words can impede understanding. Context, both within the text and the broader social and cultural context, also impacts comprehension. Finally, motivation and interest in the text can influence understanding, as readers are more likely to engage deeply with material that captivates them. Overall, these factors interact in complex ways to shape the depth and quality of understanding in reading.

Linguistic factors are undeniably crucial in all aspects of language processing. According to Bachman's model of communicative language ability, linguistic factors are synonymous with language competence, which is one component of communicative language abilities (Bachman, 1990:85-87). Language competence can be further broken down into two sub competencies: organizational competence and pragmatic competence. Each of these sub competencies is thought to consist of two additional substructures: grammatical competence and textual competence fall under organizational competence, while illocutionary competence and sociolinguistic competence fall under pragmatic competence. Moreover, each of these four sub competencies involves operational abilities. The hierarchical structure of Bachman's language competence is illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Language Competence and Its Sub Competences (Bachman, 1990:86)

In an idealized state of affairs, these levels of competencies are contained in all macro language skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. This means that for all macro language skills to function as a channel of communication, all elements of language competence are conceptualized to play a role. Thus, in our discussion of reading, grammatical competence, textual competence, Illocutionary Competence and Sociolinguistik Competence will be activelly involved in reading as macro skils. Top of Form

a. Vocabulary Knowledge: The breadth and depth of a reader's vocabulary can significantly impact reading comprehension. Readers with a larger vocabulary are better able to understand and interpret a wider range of texts.

Vocabulary knowledge refers to the extent and depth of words a reader understands. The breadth of vocabulary includes the number of words a person knows, while the depth refers to how well they understand each word's meaning, nuances, and usage. This knowledge greatly affects reading comprehension because understanding a text relies heavily on recognizing and comprehending the words used.

Readers with a larger vocabulary have an advantage in reading comprehension because they can recognize and understand a wider variety of words and concepts. They can also more easily grasp the subtleties of meaning within a text, as well as infer the meanings of unfamiliar words based on their understanding of related words. This allows them to comprehend a broader range of texts across different subjects and genres.

It is evident that reading critically requires grammatical competence, as discussed earlier. However, possessing grammatical competence alone is insufficient for true comprehension of a written text. Another crucial factor is necessary: world background knowledge. This factor is closely associated with what is known as content and world background knowledge, which refers to the reader's prior knowledge relevant to the text's content. Simply put, this factor represents the reader's familiarity with the topic of a written text. Therefore, a key question arises: Does the reader possess knowledge about the topic of the text being read?

World background knowledge is essentially connected to the topic being discussed. But what exactly is a 'topic'? A topic is a subject that is addressed in a text or discussion. It implies a general understanding of something. Consequently, knowledge about a topic involves several processes, including recognizing the individual components of the topic, identifying the meaningful relationships between these components, and synthesizing details to form meaningful connections. Since topics are inherently influenced by context, particularly social context, they determine the registers specific to that social context. For instance, social context may encompass home, school, work, community, and various other contexts. In summary, Understanding a topic involves connecting additional pieces of information related to that topic within a specific social context. The relationship between the topic and these relevant pieces of information internally creates a semantic field at a linguistic level and a mind map at a social dimension.

For example, when someone recognizes the topic of "floods," they should be able to form a semantic field in their mind related to the concept of floods. The term "floods" is interconnected with other terms such as "water," "large quantity," "rain," "disaster," "nature," "victim," and many others. These connections between the topic "floods" and its associated terms can be visually represented in a diagram, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Semantic Map of 'Floods'

On another social level, the reader must activate their mental map related to the topic of "floods." Unlike the semantic map, which focuses on close semantic associations of terms, the mind map expands these associations to a broader range of social perspectives. For example, the topic of "floods" can be elaborated using a mind map that includes three main social domains: effects, causes, and prevention. These three domains are considered equal in terms of their importance. Each major domain is then further elaborated into smaller domains. For example, the effects domain may include subdomains such as economic impact, environmental impact, and psychological impact.

The causes of floods are often socially linked to activities like illegal logging, blocked rivers, tsunamis, and excessive rainfall. The effects of floods include social consequences such as loss of life, destruction of property, spread of diseases, and damage to crops. Flood prevention efforts may include initiatives such as early warning systems, implementation of laws and regulations, and construction of drainage systems. All of these components form part of an individual's repertoire of world background knowledge, which is stored and available for retrieval as needed. The associations within this knowledge are depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Mind Map Associated with 'Floods'

In addition to world background knowledge, a reader must also engage their content schemata, which is their background knowledge related to the topic of a written text. Because content schemata are based on individuals' past experiences, the level of activation will differ from one person to another. It is suggested that the more content schemata a reader possesses and can activate, the more reading comprehension will benefit from it, leading to a deeper understanding of the text.

b. Word Recognition Skills: The ability to accurately and quickly recognize words is essential for fluent reading. Readers who struggle with word recognition may have difficulty understanding the text.

Word recognition skills are fundamental for fluent reading. When readers can swiftly and accurately recognize words, they can focus more on understanding the text's meaning rather than decoding individual words. This fluency leads to better comprehension and engagement with the material. In contrast, readers who struggle with word recognition may find reading laborious and frustrating, as they must expend more effort on deciphering words, leaving less cognitive resources for comprehension. These readers may experience comprehension difficulties, as their focus is divided between decoding and understanding the text. Improving word recognition skills can enhance overall reading proficiency and enjoyment.

c. Phonological Awareness: Understanding the sounds of language and how they relate to letters is important for decoding words. Readers with strong phonological awareness are better able to decode unfamiliar words.

Phonological awareness refers to the ability to recognize and manipulate the sounds of language. This skill is essential for decoding unfamiliar words when reading. Readers with strong phonological awareness can break down words into their individual sounds, or phonemes, and blend these sounds together to form words. For example, they can recognize that the word "cat" is made up of the sounds /k/, /æ/, and /t/, and blend these sounds to say the word. This ability is particularly useful when encountering new or unfamiliar words, as it allows readers to sound out the word based on its phonetic components. Phonological awareness is a foundational skill that supports reading fluency and comprehension, as it helps readers accurately decode words and understand their meanings.

Phonological awareness is the ability to understand and manipulate the sounds of language. This skill is crucial for decoding words, as it helps readers recognize the relationship between sounds and letters. Readers with strong phonological awareness can break words down into their individual sounds, or phonemes, and manipulate these sounds to form new words. For example, they can recognize that the word "cat" is made up of three phonemes: /k/, /æ/, and /t/. This awareness allows them to decode unfamiliar words by sounding out each phoneme and blending them together to form the word. Phonological awareness also helps readers develop spelling skills, as they learn to associate sounds with specific letters or letter combinations. Overall, phonological awareness plays a vital role in reading development, particularly in the early stages of learning to read.

d. Syntax and Grammar: Understanding the rules of syntax and grammar helps readers make sense of the structure of sentences and paragraphs, which is crucial for understanding the meaning of the text.

Syntax and grammar are essential components of language that play a crucial role in reading comprehension. Syntax refers to the rules that govern how words are organized into sentences, while grammar encompasses the rules for how words are used to convey meaning in a language. Understanding these rules helps readers make sense of the structure of sentences and paragraphs, which is vital for understanding the meaning of a text. For example, knowing that a sentence typically begins with a capital letter and ends with a period helps readers identify the boundaries of a sentence and understand its structure. Similarly, understanding subject-verb agreement helps readers interpret the relationship between the subject and the action in a sentence. Overall, a strong grasp of syntax and grammar is essential for readers to effectively decode and comprehend written language.

e. Morphological Awareness: Awareness of the structure of words (morphemes) can help readers understand the meaning of complex words and how they are formed.

Morphological awareness is an important aspect of language development and reading comprehension. It involves an understanding of the structure of words, known as morphemes, which are the smallest units of meaning in a language. Readers with strong morphological awareness can break down complex words into their constituent morphemes and understand how these morphemes contribute to the overall meaning of the word. For example, the word "unhappiness" can be broken down into three morphemes: "un-" (meaning "not"), "happy" (a root word), and "-ness" (a suffix indicating a state or quality). Understanding these morphemes helps readers infer the meaning of the word as "not happy" or "lacking happiness." Morphological awareness also helps readers understand how words are formed and how they can be modified to change their meaning or part of speech. This skill is particularly important for decoding unfamiliar words and understanding the nuances of vocabulary in more advanced texts.

f. Discourse Markers: Understanding how sentences and ideas are connected within a text can help readers follow the flow of the text and understand the relationships between different parts.

Discourse markers are words or phrases that help organize and connect ideas within a text. They play a crucial role in guiding readers through the text and helping them understand the relationships between different parts of the text. For example, words like "however," "therefore," and "in addition" signal a change in direction, a consequence, or an addition to the previous idea. By recognizing these markers, readers can follow the flow of the text more easily and understand how each idea relates to the overall meaning. Discourse markers also help readers anticipate the structure of the text, making it easier for them to process and retain information. Overall, an awareness of discourse markers is essential for effective reading comprehension, as it helps readers navigate complex texts and grasp the author's intended meaning.

g. Text Structure: Understanding the organizational structure of different types of texts (e.g., narrative, expository) can help readers predict what information to expect and better comprehend the text.

Text structure refers to the way in which a written text is organized. Different types of texts, such as narratives, expository texts, and argumentative essays, have distinct organizational structures that help convey their purpose and meaning. Understanding these structures is important for readers because it helps them predict the type of information they are likely to encounter and how it will be presented. For example, in a narrative text, readers can expect to find a clear beginning, middle, and end, while an expository text may be organized using a cause-and-effect structure or a compare-and-contrast format. By recognizing these patterns, readers can more easily follow the flow of the text and identify key information. Text structure also helps readers make connections between different parts of the text, enhancing their overall comprehension.

h. Figurative Language: Understanding figurative language such as metaphors, similes, and idioms adds depth to comprehension and requires a nuanced understanding of language.

Figurative language, including metaphors, similes, and idioms, adds richness and depth to written language. While literal language conveys meaning directly, figurative language uses words in an imaginative way to create a more vivid and nuanced expression. Understanding figurative language requires readers to interpret meaning beyond the literal definitions of words and phrases. For example, when someone says "it's raining cats and dogs," they are not literally meaning that animals are falling from the sky; rather, they are using an idiom to express that it is raining heavily. Similarly, metaphors and similes compare two unlike things to suggest a similarity, such as describing someone as "light as a feather" or "brave as a lion." Proficiency in recognizing and interpreting figurative language enhances reading comprehension by allowing readers to grasp subtleties, infer deeper meanings, and appreciate the creative use of language by authors.

i. Pragmatics: Understanding the social and contextual aspects of language use can help readers infer meaning and understand implied information in a text.

Pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language. It involves understanding the social and cultural nuances of language use, including the speaker's intentions, the relationship between the speaker and the listener, and the broader context in which the communication takes place. In reading, pragmatics plays a crucial role in helping readers infer meaning and understand implied information. For example, understanding the pragmatic meaning of a statement like "Can you pass the salt?" involves knowing that it is not just a request for salt but also a polite way of asking someone to pass it. Pragmatic skills also help readers understand humor, sarcasm, and other forms of indirect communication that rely heavily on context and shared understanding. Overall, an understanding of pragmatics enhances reading comprehension by allowing readers to interpret text more accurately and appreciate the subtleties of language use.